DNA explained: Structure, function, and impact on health

DNA explained: Structure, function, and impact on health <![CDATA[ (function () {window.dataLayer.push({event: "appState Received", "appState": {"title":"DNA explained: Structure, function, and impact on health","canonical":"https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/319818","hrlContentId":"mnt-2604561","isArticle":true,"isContentSeries":false,"canonicalPath":"/articles/319818","pageTemplate":"Tabbed Article","logMoreMetrics":true,"adsSponsored":false,"isCPUV":false,"newsletter":{"tags":"","categories":"genetics,biology-biochemistry"},"isSponsoredArticle":false,"targeting":{"k1":"othergenetics","k2":"genetics","k3":"health","kmeta":"depression-predictive-aq-1","msiteactive":"false","url":"/articles/319818","articleId":"mnt-2604561","adLayout":"REDUCED"},"categories":[{"name":"Genetics","slug":"genetics","link":"/categories/genetics","primary":true,"children":[]},{"name":"Biology / Biochemistry","slug":"biology-biochemistry","link":"/categories/biology-biochemistry","children":[]}],"subcategories":[],"widgets":{},"sponsoredNavMenu":false,"author":"Tim Newman","editor":"Alina Sharon","contentForm":"Head Term","type":"healthfeature","vertical":"General Health","trackingTerms":[],"isPremiumVideo":false,"isStandaloneVideo":false,"isStandaloneRecipe":false,"hasDisabledPrerollJWPlayer":false,"isNewsArticle":false,"hasEmbeddedJWPlayer":false,"byline":{"authors":[{"id":877,"name":{"display":"Tim Newman","first":"Tim","last":"Newman"},"link":"/authors/tim-newman","type":{"value":"author","label":"Author"},"nid":"","specialties":[],"guestTitle":"Senior News Editor","bio":{"text":"

After completing a bachelor’s degree in neuroscience at the U.K.’s University of Manchester, Tim changed course entirely to work in sales, marketing, and analysis. Realizing that his heart truly lies with science and writing, he changed course once more and joined the Medical News Today team. As Senior News Editor, Tim led our team of top notch writers and editors, who report on the latest medical research from peer reviewed journals; he also penned a few articles himself. Tim is now an Editor at ZOE.n”},”avatar”:{“title”:””,”width”:500,”height”:500,”src”:”https://post.medicalnewstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2020/06/500x500_Tim_Newman.png”}}],”medicalReviewers”:[{“id”:5097,”name”:{“display”:”Megan Soliman, MD”,”first”:”Megan”,”last”:”Soliman, MD”},”userLogin”:”msoliman”,”links”:{“website”:””,”facebook”:””,”linkedin”:””,”twitter”:””,”instagram”:””,”tiktok”:””},”link”:”/reviewers/megan-soliman-md”,”type”:{“value”:”medical_reviewer”,”label”:”Medical Advisor”},”nid”:””,”specialties”:[],”guestTitle”:””,”bio”:{“text”:”

Dr. Megan Soliman is an ABMS board certified internal medicine physician whose main focus in her clinical practice is patient advocacy. Her research interests include adverse effects of medications and herbal supplements. Dr. Soliman is enthusiastic about “bread and butter” medicine, which includes treating patients with the most common diseases. She also has a passion for reaching underserved communities, including both U.S. and international rural communities.n

Educationn

n
• Saba University School of Medicine, MD, MScn
• University of Nevada, Reno, BS in Neurosciencenn

  Certificationsn

  n
  • American Board of Internal Medicine – Internal Medicinenn

    Professional Accomplishmentsn

    n
    • Completed internship and residency at Rochester General Hospitaln
    • Work has appeared in several publicationsnn”},”avatar”:{“title”:””,”width”:500,”height”:500,”src”:”https://post.medicalnewstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2021/03/Megan_Soliman_500x500_Med_Reviewer_Photos_v2.png”}}],”id”:”mnt-2604561″,”updateReason”:[“The article was updated with additional information to ensure it provides our readers with a comprehensive overview of the topic.”],”editor”:”Alina Sharon”,”factCheckedBy”:””,”factCheckers”:[],”articleHistory”:{“2018-01-11”:{“updateReason”:[],”authors”:”Tim Newman”,”editor”:”Tim Newman”,”medicallyReviewedBy”:”Alana Biggers, MD, MPH”},”2022-08-02″:{“updateReason”:[],”authors”:”Tim Newman”,”editor”:”Alina Sharon”,”copyEditor”:”Copy Editors”,”medicallyReviewedBy”:”Megan Soliman, MD”},”2023-12-21″:{“updateReason”:[“The article was updated with additional information to ensure it provides our readers with a comprehensive overview of the topic.”],”authors”:”Tim Newman”,”editor”:”Alina Sharon”}},”articleDates”:{“factChecked”:{“date”:null,”display”:””},”medicallyReviewed”:{“date”:1659398400,”display”:”August 2, 2022″},”published”:{“date”:1515668400,”display”:”January 11, 2018″},”lastUpdates”:{“date”:1703161417,”display”:”December 21, 2023″},”modified”:{“date”:1703161408,”display”:”December 21, 2023″}},”type”:”healthfeature”,”language”:”en”},”cesData”:{“metaDescription”:”DNA is perhaps the most famous molecule on earth. Here we explain what it is, what it does, and how it is crucial for health.”,”title”:”DNA explained: Structure, function, and impact on health”,”iab_tag_tier_1″:[],”iab_tag_tier_2″:[],”mpdTags”:[{“confidence”:0.7167124951769918,”type”:”topic_level_1″,”value”:”health”},{“confidence”:0.7910152372612849,”type”:”topic_level_2″,”value”:”neurology”},{“confidence”:0.8134316342149647,”type”:”topic_level_3″,”value”:”neuroscience”},{“confidence”:0.8706593991072791,”type”:”topic_level_4″,”value”:”dna_testing”},{“confidence”:0.4312738247843827,”type”:”entity”,”value”:”dna”}]},”relatedStories”:[{“title”:”8-hour time-restricted eating may be key to long-term weight loss, trial finds”,”link”:”https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/8-hour-time-restricted-eating-may-key-long-term-weight-loss-trial”,”thumbnail”:”https://media.post.rvohealth.io/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2025/05/alarm-clock-xray-732×549-thumbnail.jpg”,”summary”:”Three months of 8-hour time-restricted eating (TRE), regardless of the time of the day, helped sustain long-term weight loss in adults with overweight or obesity, preliminary results from a clinical trial has shown.”},{“title”:”Can fiber help you lose weight? Dietitian answers 5 key questions”,”link”:”https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/can-fiber-help-lose-weight-dietitian-answers-5-key-questions”,”thumbnail”:”https://media.post.rvohealth.io/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2025/05/feature-in_convo-fiber-732×549.jpg”,”summary”:”A registered dietitian answers key questions about fiber — why we need it, how much we need to consume, whether supplements like psyllium husk can aid weight loss, and more in this podcast.”},{“title”:”Vitamin B, choline supplements may slow down glaucoma, mice study shows”,”link”:”https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/vitamin-b-choline-supplements-may-slow-down-glaucoma-mice-study”,”thumbnail”:”https://media.post.rvohealth.io/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2025/05/pills-eyes-collage-732×549-thumbnail.jpg”,”summary”:”Supplementing with B vitamins and the essential nutrient choline may help slow the progression of glaucoma, a new study in mice has suggested.”},{“title”:”Diabetes and weight loss drug semaglutide may also treat liver disease”,”link”:”https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/diabetes-weight-loss-drug-semaglutide-ozempic-may-also-treat-liver-disease”,”thumbnail”:”https://media.post.rvohealth.io/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2025/05/Ozempic-Wegovy-shadows-732×549-thumbnail.jpg”,”summary”:”A weekly dose of semaglutide, a drug used to manage diabetes and weight loss, was effective in 63% of patients at treating a serious form of fatty liver disease, a new study has found.”},{“title”:”Could HIV drugs help prevent Alzheimer’s disease?”,”link”:”https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/hiv-drugs-help-prevent-alzheimers-disease-nrti”,”thumbnail”:”https://media.post.rvohealth.io/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2025/05/senior-woman-sorting-pills-732×549-thumbnail.jpg”,”summary”:”A class of HIV drugs known as nucleotide reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs) may help prevent Alzheimer’s disease, reducing risk by up to 13%, a new study suggests.”}],”infiniteScroll”:true,”infScrollArticles”:[{“title”:[“What to know about genetic disorders”],”text”:[“A genetic disorder is a condition that occurs as a result of a mutation in DNA. There are many different types of genetic disorder. Learn more here.”],”link”:”/articles/genetic-disorders”,”imageAlt”:”What to know about genetic disorders”,”thumbnail”:”https://media.post.rvohealth.io/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2020/07/GettyImages-480811069_thumb-732×549.jpg”,”medicallyReviewedBy”:{“reviewerName”:”Harshil Matta, DO”,”reviewerImage”:{“path”:”https://media.post.rvohealth.io/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2021/04/Harshil_Matta_500x500_Med_Reviewer_Photos_v2.png”,”width”:200,”height”:200,”altText”:””}},”isNutrition”:false,”authors”:[{“id”:956,”name”:{“display”:”Aaron Kandola”,”first”:”Aaron”,”last”:”Kandola, Ph.D.”},”userLogin”:”aaronkandola”,”links”:{“website”:””,”facebook”:””,”linkedin”:””,”twitter”:””,”instagram”:””,”tiktok”:””},”link”:”/authors/aaron-kandola”,”type”:{“value”:”author”,”label”:”Author”},”nid”:””,”specialties”:[],”guestTitle”:””,”bio”:{“text”:”

      Aaron completed a Ph.D. in psychiatric epidemiology at University College London’s Division of Psychiatry and an M.Sc. in neuroscience at the University of Amsterdam. He works as a senior health analyst at the UK Health Security Agency and Public Health England, having previously held research positions at University College London, the Mental Health Foundation, and Monash University. Aaron’s research on the relationship between physical and mental health has appeared in leading scientific journals, such as The Lancet Psychiatry, and featured across many global media outlets, including the New York Times, BBC, Le Monde, NPR, and CNN.n

      To keep up with Aaron, follow him on Twitter or visit his list of academic publications.n”},”avatar”:{“title”:””,”width”:500,”height”:500,”src”:”https://post.medicalnewstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2020/06/500x500_Aaron_Kandol.png”}}],”reviewedByHeader”:”Medically reviewed by”},{“title”:[“What are the benefits of CoQ10?”],”text”:[“The body needs CoQ10, or coenzyme Q10, to function correctly. In this article, we discuss the possible health benefits of CoQ10 supplementation, along…”],”link”:”/articles/324113″,”imageAlt”:”What are the benefits of CoQ10?”,”thumbnail”:”https://media.post.rvohealth.io/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2020/02/324113_2200-732×549.jpg”,”medicallyReviewedBy”:{“reviewerName”:”Zara Risoldi Cochrane, Pharm.D., M.S., FASCP”,”reviewerImage”:{“path”:”https://media.post.rvohealth.io/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2019/12/zara-cochrane_mr.png”,”width”:200,”height”:200,”altText”:””},”specialties”:[]},”isNutrition”:false,”authors”:[{“id”:951,”name”:{“display”:”Jamie Eske”,”first”:”Jamie”,”last”:”Eske”},”userLogin”:”jamieeske”,”links”:{“website”:””,”facebook”:””,”linkedin”:””,”twitter”:””,”instagram”:””,”tiktok”:””},”link”:”/authors/jamie-eske”,”type”:{“value”:”author”,”label”:”Author”},”nid”:””,”specialties”:[],”guestTitle”:””,”bio”:{“text”:”

      Jamie is fascinated by the intersection of health and humanity. Before writing for Healthline, she completed a B.A. in English. She hopes her work will help increase health literacy and pave the way toward a healthy future for all. She is currently studying Public Health and Biostatistics.n

      To keep up with Jamie, follow her on Twitter or Instagram.n”},”avatar”:{“title”:””,”width”:500,”height”:500,”src”:”https://post.medicalnewstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2020/06/500x500_Jamie_Eske.png”}}],”reviewedByHeader”:”Medically reviewed by”},{“title”:[“What are vesicles, and how do they work?”],”text”:[“Find out how vesicles function in the body and what the five main types of vesicle are. We also discuss how vesicles interact with other cells and…”],”link”:”/articles/vesicle”,”imageAlt”:”What are vesicles, and how do they work?”,”thumbnail”:”https://media.post.rvohealth.io/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2020/05/shutterstock_713237716_thumb-732×549.jpg”,”medicallyReviewedBy”:{“reviewerName”:”Jenna Lester, MD”,”reviewerImage”:{“imageUrl”:””,”imageWidth”:-1,”imageHeight”:-1,”imageAlt”:””,”imageTitle”:””,”path”:””,”width”:-1,”height”:-1,”altText”:””,”title”:””}},”isNutrition”:false,”authors”:[{“id”:2855,”name”:{“display”:”Joanne Lewsley”,”first”:”Joanne”,”last”:”Lewsley”},”userLogin”:”jlewsley”,”links”:{“website”:””,”facebook”:””,”linkedin”:””,”twitter”:””,”instagram”:””,”tiktok”:””},”link”:”/authors/joanne-lewsley”,”type”:{“value”:”author”,”label”:”Author”},”nid”:””,”specialties”:[],”guestTitle”:””,”bio”:{“text”:”

      Joanne Lewsley is a freelance writer and editor based in Norwich, UK. She creates evidence-based health and parenting content and has worked with some of the world’s best-known brands and websites. You can see more of her work by visiting her website.n”},”avatar”:{“title”:””,”width”:500,”height”:500,”src”:”https://post.medicalnewstoday.com/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2021/06/Joanne-Lewsley-500×500-Bio.png”}}],”reviewedByHeader”:”Medically reviewed by”}],”forceShowAuth”:false,”hidePlacements”:[],”userPreloadDrivers”:{“headerNewsletter”:{“_driverPath”:”/articles/319818″,”_contentIndex”:”page”,”driverId”:”ff4ad816-143d-4c2a-968c-ea480f595bfe”,”siteId”:”40fa3d40-7108-11ea-a8fe-ab86e8b4e4d7″,”site”:”mnt”,”status”:”on”,”deleted”:false,”overridePredictiveRPM”:false,”created”:”2025-03-06T16:23:33.000Z”,”updated”:”2025-03-06T16:23:33.000Z”,”createdBy”:”liallison@redventures.com”,”updatedBy”:”emcelroy@rvohealth.com”,”isTest”:true,”overridePredictiveRPMType”:”none”,”sdapiTestName”:””,”rewardType”:””,”modelType”:””,”customModel”:false,”holdout”:””,”imageMobile”:”https://post.healthline.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/2ppuDefaultDesktop.jpg”,”color”:”#3d5191″,”driverTypeId”:”1ed6a315-4241-4254-92ae-17d0570ee038″,”confirmationImageDesktop”:”https://images-prod.healthline.com/hlcmsresource/images/frontend-static/hl/check-our-instagram-desktop.jpg”,”confirmationImageMobile”:”https://images-prod.healthline.com/hlcmsresource/images/frontend-static/hl/check-our-instagram-mobile.jpg”,”sailthruAccount”:”mnt”,”source”:”menu_newsletter_link”,”titleOverride”:”“You are my favorite medical source online””,”confirmDesc”:”Look out for our email. Can’t wait? Check us out on Instagram.”,”callToAction”:”Join us”,”confirmTitle”:”Thanks for subscribing”,”id”:”9cd886bb-feda-4bca-85a0-4ce514e28eb7″,”trackingNumber”:49520,”adTagIds”:[“5bfa54a0-cb61-11ea-841d-230b5918b98d”],”articlePlacement”:”headerNewsletter”,”image”:”https://post.healthline.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/2ppuDefaultDesktop.jpg”,”confirmCallToActionURL”:”https://www.instagram.com/healthline/?subid=e%3Ahw_s%3Amnt_p%3Anl_n%3Amntdaily_l%3Aheadernewsletter_v%3Acontrol_49520″,”secondarySubscriptionSubhead”:”Other newsletters you won’t want to miss:”,”autoOpen”:false,”titleOverrideMobile”:”“You are my favorite medical source online””,”secondaryNewsletters”:[],”descriptionModal”:”Join the thousands who trust MNT for accurate, timely medical information. Our expert writers and medical professionals provide daily health news and insights. See why we’re the go-to source for savvy readers.”,”includeFeedbackStep”:false,”driverType”:”headerNewsletter”,”verticalId”:”7b2406da-a0bd-42a6-95aa-7d6c6d2e0d75″,”verticalName”:”MNT Daily”,”lists”:[“MNT Daily News”],”newsletterMeta”:true,”confirmCallToAction”:”FOLLOW US”,”name”:”e:hw_s:mnt_p:nl_n:mntdaily_l:headernewsletter_v:control”,”imageDesktop”:”https://post.healthline.com/wp-content/uploads/2023/03/2ppuDefaultDesktop.jpg”,”style”:”standard”,”descriptionModalMobile”:””,”driverPlacementId”:”d5b8e667-55c1-4a6d-b05d-728a1733109b”,”campaignName”:”e:hw_s:mnt_p:nl_n:mntdaily_l:headernewsletter_v:control_49520″,”productId”:”e:hw_s:mnt_p:nl_n:mntdaily_l:headernewsletter_v:control_49520″,”_uuid”:”m4539d043-3785-4ab7-b25d-b5ce287b2453mpd_headerNewsletter_ff4ad816-143d-4c2a-968c-ea480f595bfe”,”cpm”:7.78170920334268e+307}},”hasContextualDrivers”:false,”travelerDisabledReasons”:[“Ineligible site (mnt)”]}})})() ]]>

DNA is a biological molecule that contains the instructions an organism needs to function, develop, and reproduce. It is present in all forms of life on earth and contains each organism’s genetic code.

Virtually every cell in the body contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). It is the genetic code that makes each person unique. DNA carries the instructions for the development, growth, reproduction, and functioning of all life.

Differences in the genetic code are why one person has blue eyes rather than brown, why birds only have two wings, or why giraffes have long necks. Differences or mutations in the genetic code can also lead to being susceptible to certain diseases.

Not only do nearly all cells in the body contain DNA, but the DNA in a single cell would span over 6.5 feet (ft) long if unraveled and stretched end-to-end.

This article will break down the basics of DNA, what it is made of, how it works, and how it impacts health.

In short, DNA is a long molecule that contains each person’s unique genetic code. It holds the instructions for building the proteins essential for the body’s function.

DNA instructions pass from parent to child, with roughly half of a child’s DNA originating from the father and half from the mother.

DNA is a two-stranded molecule that appears twisted, giving it a unique shape referred to as the double helix.

Each of the two strands is a long sequence of nucleotides. These are the individual units of DNA and they are made of:

• a phosphate molecule
• a sugar molecule called deoxyribose, containing five carbons
• a nitrogen-containing region

There are four types of nitrogen-containing regions called bases, including:

• adenine (A)
• cytosine (C)
• guanine (G)
• thymine (T)

The order of these four bases forms the genetic code, which is the instructions for life.

The bases of the two strands of DNA are stuck together to create a ladder-like shape. Within the ladder, A sticks to T, and G sticks to C to create the “rungs.” The length of the ladder forms through the sugar and phosphate groups.

Each length of DNA that codes for a specific protein is called a gene. For instance, one gene codes for the protein insulin, the hormone that helps control levels of sugar in the blood. Humans have around 30,000 genes, although estimates vary.

It’s believed that only about 1% of DNA is made up of protein-coding genes. Scientists know less about the function of the remaining 99% of DNA but believe them to be involved in regulating transcription and translation.

Chromosome 1 is the largest and contains around 2,800 genes. The smallest is chromosome 22 with around 750 genes.

Most DNA lives in the nuclei of cells and some exist in mitochondria, which are the powerhouses of the cells.

Because humans have so much DNA and the nuclei are so small, DNA needs to be packaged incredibly neatly.

Strands of DNA loop, coil, and wrap around proteins called histones. In this coiled state, it is DNA is called chromatin.

Chromatin condenses further through a supercoiling process and packages into structures called chromosomes. These chromosomes form the familiar “X” shape.

Each chromosome contains one DNA molecule. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes or 46 chromosomes in total. Other species have different numbers. For example, fruit flies have 8 chromosomes, while pigeons have 80 chromosomes.

Protein creation

For genes to create a protein, there are two main steps, including:

• Transcription: The DNA code duplicates into messenger RNA (mRNA). RNA is a copy of DNA, but it is normally single-stranded. Another difference is that RNA does not contain the base thymine (T). In RNA, uracil (U) replaces thymine (T).
• Translation: The mRNA translates into amino acids by transfer RNA (tRNA).

mRNA provides information on a particular amino acid via three-letter sections called codons. Each codon codes for a specific amino acid or building block of a protein. For instance, the codon GUG codes for the amino acid valine.

Telomeres

Telomeres are regions of repeated nucleotides at the end of chromosomes.

They protect the ends of the chromosome from being damaged or fusing with other chromosomes.

Scientists liken them to the plastic tips on shoelaces that stop them from becoming frayed.

As a person gets older, this protective region steadily becomes smaller. Each time a cell divides and DNA is replicated, the telomere becomes shorter.

In all people, DNA degrades over time, causing people to age.

Sometimes, however, a person’s DNA sequence may change randomly. This is called a mutation. Certain mutations in a person’s genetic code can lead them to develop a variety of diseases or conditions.

Alternatively, a person can inherit a gene that may cause problems with their health. Environmental factors can influence how these mutated genes manifest.

Damage to the structure of DNA can occur in various ways. This includes when:

• the bases connect in the wrong order after replication
• a base pair is missing
• there is an extra base pair
• there is a malfunction in DNA replication or recombination
• there is exposure to environmental factors such as radiation or heavy metals
• there is a mutation in the process of repairing damaged DNA.
• there is a change in the number or structure of chromosomes

Diseases or health conditions can result from damage in only one gene, such as cystic fibrosis, or damage in several parts of a person’s DNA, such as cancer. Other examples include:

• Down’s syndrome
• autoimmune conditions
• chronic inflammatory conditions
• neurodegenerative diseases like Huntington’s disease

Here are a few common questions about DNA.

Who discovered DNA?

The discovery of DNA is credited to Swiss scientist Friedrich Miescher, who first isolated DNA from human pus cells in the late 1860s.

What are the different types of DNA?

There are many types of DNA, each of which varies depending on its specific structure. The most common is B-DNA, but some other types found in the genome include A-DNA, H-DNA, and Z-DNA.

What is DNA replication?

DNA replication is a process that occurs when DNA in the cells copies itself. This helps ensure that each new cell has its own complete genome during cell division.

Can genetic diseases be cured?

Doctors can only treat the symptoms of conditions caused by a genetic mutation. However, researchers are continuously working to develop gene therapy types that may help stop a disease from progressing. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved some gene therapy drugs, while others are undergoing clinical trials.

DNA is a molecule found in most cells holding each person’s unique genetic code. It is responsible for coding proteins, which are essential to the growth and development of cells.

Chromosomes are tightly coiled strands of DNA. Genes are sections of DNA that code individual proteins. DNA also carries important genetic information necessary for the survival and function of all life forms on earth.

Put another way, DNA is the master plan for life on earth and gives all living organisms their unique genetic code. When something in this plan malfunctions, diseases and health problems can occur.

 

How we reviewed this article:

Medical News Today has strict sourcing guidelines and relies on peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical journals and associations. We only use quality, credible sources to ensure content accuracy and integrity. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy.

• ACGT. (2022).
  https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/acgt
• Autosome. (2022).
  https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Autosome
• Codon. (2022).
  https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Codon
• Di Salvo, T. G., et al. (2015). Right ventricular long noncoding RNA expression in human heart failure.
  https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1086/679721
• DNA replication. (2022).
  https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/DNA-Replication
• Drexler, M. (n.d.). The DNA of public health.
  https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/news/magazine/centennial-dna-public-health/
• Drosophila melanogaster (fruit fly). (n.d.).
  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome?term=txid7227
• Ghannam, J. Y., et al. (2021). Biochemistry, DNA structure.
  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538241/
• Guiblet, W. M., et al. (2021). Non-B DNA: A major contributor to small- and large-scale variation in nucleotide substitution frequencies across the genome.
  https://academic.oup.com/nar/article/49/3/1497/6101603
• Hoerter, J. E., et al. (2021). Biochemistry, protein synthesis.
  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK545161/
• Human genome project FAQ. (n.d.).
  https://www.genome.gov/human-genome-project/Completion-FAQ
• Kretschmer, R., et al. (2020). A comprehensive cytogenetic analysis of several members of the family Columbidae (Aves, Columbiformes).
  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7349364/
• Liu, P. P. (2022). Chromatin.
  https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Chromatin
• Nakad, R., et al. (2016). Dna damage response and immune defense: links and mechanisms. /full
  https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fgene.2016.00147
• Privalov, P. L., et al. (2022). Forces maintaining the DNA double helix.
  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7351851/
• Sturm, N. (2019). Types of mutations.
  http://www2.csudh.edu/nsturm/CHEMXL153/DNAMutationRepair.htm
• Telomere. (2022).
  https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/Telomere
• Thess A., et al. (2021). Historic nucleic acids isolated by Friedrich Miescher contain RNA besides DNA.
  https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34523295/
• Understanding the importance of gene therapy for rare disease. (n.d.).
  https://rarediseases.org/gene-therapy/
• Yousefzadeh, M., et al. (2021). DNA damage—how and why we age?
  https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7846274/
• What is a genetic disorder? (n.d.).
  https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-a-genetic-disorder/
• What is noncoding DNA? (2021).
  https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/basics/noncodingdna/

© 2025 Healthline Media UK Ltd, London, UK. All rights reserved. MNT is the registered trade mark of Healthline Media. Healthline Media is an RVO Health Company. Any medical information published on this website is not intended as a substitute for informed medical advice and you should not take any action before consulting with a healthcare professional. See additional information.© 2025 Healthline Media UK Ltd, London, UK. All rights reserved. MNT is the registered trade mark of Healthline Media. Healthline Media is an RVO Health Company. Any medical information published on this website is not intended as a substitute for informed medical advice and you should not take any action before consulting with a healthcare professional. See additional information. { if (window.afterMPD) { /* Defer preamp rendering until we have injected all MPDs as those */ /* need to be in the DOM for Preamp to inject into. */ afterMPD(done); clearInterval(interval); } },500) }, } }; /* eslint-disable-next-line no-underscore-dangle */ window._Cohesion = { k: ‘cohesion’, tagular: tagularConfigs, preamp: preampConfigs }; window._Tagular = { k: ‘tagular’ }; window._Preamp = { k: ‘preamp’, start: new Date(), docReady: true }; window._Fuse = { k: ‘fuse’, docReady: false }; window.tagular = tagular; window.preamp = preamp; window.fuse = () => {}; window.cohesion = cohesion; ]]>

Source